Foreign Invasions and Political Discord in the 19th Century
The newly independent Republic of Texas, formerly a part of Mexico, was admitted to the United States in 1845. Mexico considered this action an encroachment on their territory, leading to boundary disputes along Mexico’s extensive border. Furthermore, conflicts between American settlers and Mexicans in Mexico’s territory of Alta California were leading Americans to call for their own independence.
Most Mexicans were not interested in losing any more territory and believed it would tarnish the national honor; nor were they in a position to negotiate, as the government was still undergoing turbulence. Mexicans who opposed war with the United States and who leaned toward selling the territory, including President José Joaquín de Herrera, were considered traitors.
After violence erupted near the Rio Grande in disputed territory between Mexican and American troops in 1846, President Polk requested and was granted a declaration of war from Congress in May. Santa Anna used the political turmoil to his advantage to return to the spotlight and seize the presidency. The U.S. army quickly claimed a series of victories along the Rio Grande, in California and the Southwest. Fighting would continue for several months as the United States slowly gained territory and finally occupied Mexico City in September 1847. The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which granted the U.S. all the Mexican territory that would later make up all or part of the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming. The U.S. gained more land through the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, which included what now makes up southern Arizona (including the city of Tucson) and New Mexico.
After the war, Santa Anna was overthrown and exiled by a group of liberals led by Benito Juárez and Ignacio Comonfort. The liberals attempted to enact a series of reforms, to curtail the power of the Catholic Church. This angered the church and their conservative allies and led to a civil war known as the War of Reform. The war ended with a liberal victory and Juárez became president.
In 1862, Mexico was again invaded, this time by France. As president, Juárez suspended interest payments on loans from foreign countries, angering Spain, France and Britain. French troops landed in Veracruz in January, supported by the British and Spanish navies. The French army suffered an initial defeat in the Battle of Puebla on May 5, which is now celebrated as Cinco de Mayo. However, the Mexican victory only delayed the eventual French occupation of Mexico City. The French installed the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria as the ruler of Mexico. Emperor Maximilian I, as he was now known, favored the establishment of a limited monarchy that would share power with a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal for Mexican conservatives, and with liberals like Juárez refusing to accept a monarch, Maximilian had few allies within Mexico.
Eventually, soldiers led by Juárez and soldiers supplied by the U.S. after the American Civil War, won victories against the French military and forced the French to withdraw their troops in 1866. The Republicans eventually retook control of most of Mexico and captured Maximilian. Despite protests from prominent figures in Europe, Juárez had Maximilian executed to show that Mexico would not tolerate any government imposed by foreign powers.
After the liberal victory, the conservatives were discredited because of their collaboration with the French and they lost their political influence. The liberals continued to implement their reforms under the “Restored Republic” until the rise of Porfirio Díaz in 1876.